History is filled with bold names and grand stories—but not every historical figure is as solid as we might assume. Over time, myth, legend, and national pride have a way of blurring the lines between fact and fiction. Some people celebrated in textbooks and folklore may never have existed at all—or at least, not in the way we think. As oral traditions blended with written accounts, and political or cultural agendas shaped the stories passed down through generations, a number of figures took on lives of their own—regardless of whether they ever actually lived. Here are 15 historical figures who may have never actually existed, and why their stories still matter.
1. King Arthur
The legendary King Arthur, ruler of Camelot and wielder of the sword Excalibur, is one of the most enduring figures in British myth. He’s the supposed unifier of Britain, the leader of the Knights of the Round Table, and the centre of tales involving Merlin, Guinevere, and the Holy Grail. But whether he was a real historical figure is still debated.
Some historians argue that Arthur may have been based on a real warrior or chieftain in post-Roman Britain, possibly around the 5th or 6th century. However, there are no contemporary records of his existence, and the earliest references appear centuries after he supposedly lived. Over time, his story was shaped by medieval writers like Geoffrey of Monmouth, who added fantastical elements that have come to define Arthurian legend. What remains is a figure more reflective of Britain’s hopes and ideals than historical fact.
2. Homer
The ancient Greek poet Homer is traditionally credited with composing The Iliad and The Odyssey, two of the foundational texts of Western literature. But the question of whether Homer ever existed—or was a single person—is still up for debate.
Some scholars believe these epic poems were passed down orally by generations of bards before being written down, possibly centuries after the events they describe. “Homer” may have been a placeholder name, symbolising a collective tradition rather than an individual genius. Others argue that if Homer did exist, very little about him can be known with certainty. Whether he was real or not, the stories attributed to him have shaped storytelling for millennia.
3. Mulan
The tale of Hua Mulan, the Chinese heroine who disguised herself as a man to join the army in place of her ageing father, has been a staple of Chinese folklore for over a thousand years. Her story was first recorded in the Ballad of Mulan during the Northern Wei dynasty. And yes, Disney also made a movie about her.
But beyond the poem, there’s no reliable historical record of Mulan’s life or deeds. Some scholars believe she may have been based on a real person, but others argue she represents a type rather than an individual—a symbol of filial piety, patriotism, and bravery. The lack of concrete evidence hasn’t stopped her from becoming a beloved cultural icon, both in China and around the world.
4. Lycurgus of Sparta
Lycurgus is often credited with laying down the rigid laws and militaristic customs of ancient Sparta. He’s said to have established the agoge, the harsh training system for boys, and to have shaped Sparta into the disciplined state it became famous for. Yet no one can agree on when—or if—he actually lived.
Some ancient sources place him around the 9th century BCE, others in the 7th or 8th century. There are even contradictory stories about whether he travelled to Crete, consulted the Oracle at Delphi, or disappeared mysteriously. Many historians now believe that “Lycurgus” may have been a fictional or symbolic figure used to legitimise a way of life that evolved over time.
5. Robin Hood
The green-clad outlaw of Sherwood Forest, known for robbing the rich to give to the poor, has become a symbol of English justice and rebellion. But finding the real Robin Hood is like chasing shadows through the trees.
Medieval records do mention people named “Robin Hood” or variations thereof, but often as generic names for bandits or fugitives. The earliest ballads date from the 14th century—long after he supposedly lived. Over time, the stories fused together, combining real grievances with idealised heroism. Whether Robin Hood was one man, many, or none at all, his legend remains deeply embedded in English folklore.
6. Pythagoras
Best known for the mathematical theorem that bears his name, Pythagoras was a philosopher and teacher in ancient Greece. But his actual life is obscured by mystery, and most of what we know comes from later followers who likely mythologised him.
He is credited with founding a religious and philosophical sect, promoting ideas about reincarnation and the mystical significance of numbers. Yet there’s no direct evidence that he ever wrote anything down, and stories about his life—including his supposed ability to speak with animals or perform miracles—make it hard to separate fact from fiction. Some historians think Pythagoras may have been more of a legendary figurehead than a historical individual.
7. William Tell
The tale of William Tell, the expert marksman who shot an apple off his son’s head as an act of defiance against a tyrannical Austrian ruler, is a central part of Swiss national identity. But there’s very little historical evidence to support it.
The earliest written versions of the story appeared in the 15th century, centuries after Tell was supposed to have lived. Elements of his tale—such as the forced apple shot and the assassination of a tyrant—echo legends from Norse and Germanic folklore. While it’s possible that the story has some basis in reality, most historians see Tell as a patriotic symbol rather than a verifiable person.
8. Aesop
Aesop’s fables have been told for centuries—short, moralistic tales featuring animals that speak and behave like humans. But the man credited with creating them remains elusive.
Ancient sources describe Aesop as a freed slave who lived in Greece around the 6th century BCE. However, details of his life vary wildly, and some accounts veer into outright myth. There’s no definitive evidence that Aesop existed as a historical person. It’s likely that the fables attributed to him were part of a much older oral tradition, collected and expanded over time by various storytellers.
9. Ned Ludd
The Luddites were textile workers in early 19th-century England who protested industrialisation by destroying machines. They claimed to act under the direction of “General” Ned Ludd, a mysterious figure whose name became synonymous with resistance.
But no reliable record of Ned Ludd’s existence has ever surfaced. Most historians believe he was entirely fictional—a symbolic leader used to unify the movement and shield its members from identification. Still, his name lives on in the term “Luddite,” used today to describe anyone resistant to new technology.
10. Prester John
Prester John was a mythical Christian king who supposedly ruled a wealthy kingdom somewhere in Asia—or later, Africa. European writers described him as a pious monarch with immense power and vast riches, often depicted as an ally in the Crusades.
Despite numerous expeditions to find his realm, no such kingdom was ever discovered. The myth of Prester John likely stemmed from garbled reports of faraway lands, combined with wishful thinking. He symbolised European hopes of finding a Christian stronghold beyond Islamic territories, but remains firmly in the realm of fantasy.
11. Betty Crocker
Unlike other entries on this list, Betty Crocker was never believed to be a historical figure—but her impact is still notable. Created in 1921 by the Washburn Crosby Company (which later became General Mills), she was a marketing tool designed to personalise customer service.
Over time, she evolved into a cultural icon, complete with a carefully crafted persona, cookbook endorsements, and even a radio show. Despite being entirely fictional, Betty Crocker became one of the most trusted names in American households. She’s a reminder that not all influential figures need to be real.
12. Sun Tzu
Sun Tzu is traditionally credited as the author of The Art of War, a military treatise still studied today. But the identity of Sun Tzu is a subject of academic debate. Some scholars believe he was a real general who lived during the Spring and Autumn Period in China (circa 5th century BCE), while others argue that the book was compiled by various authors over time.
There’s little concrete evidence about his life, and later additions to the text further blur the picture. Whether Sun Tzu was one man, a pen name, or a collective effort, his strategic insights have endured for centuries.
13. Ragnar Lothbrok
Norse sagas portray Ragnar Lothbrok as a legendary Viking hero—conqueror, dragon-slayer, and father to equally famous sons. But the more fantastical elements of his story raise doubts about whether he ever existed.
Historians suggest Ragnar may be a composite of several real Viking leaders whose exploits were combined and mythologised. While some of the events attributed to him may have a historical basis, the overall figure seems more mythical than factual. Still, he remains a powerful cultural symbol of Viking daring and defiance.
14. John Henry
The legend of John Henry, the steel-driving man who raced a steam drill and died with his hammer in hand, is a cornerstone of American folklore. He represents the dignity of labour and the struggle against dehumanising machinery.
Some researchers believe the story may be based on a real person—possibly a railway worker who died during tunnel construction in the late 19th century. But concrete evidence is lacking, and the story has taken on a life of its own through song, poetry, and oral tradition. Whether or not he lived, the message endures.
15. Sybil Ludington
Often referred to as the “female Paul Revere,” Sybil Ludington is said to have made a nighttime ride in 1777 to warn American forces of an impending British attack. Her story became more widely known in the 20th century and has since been celebrated in books, statues, and commemorations.
However, primary source evidence for her ride is minimal. Some historians question whether the event happened as described—or at all. Still, she has become a symbol of youthful patriotism and courage, especially in narratives seeking to highlight women’s roles in history.
Myth and history have always danced together, sometimes gracefully, sometimes awkwardly. These figures—whether real, imagined, or somewhere in between—show how stories shape our understanding of the past. They reflect the values, fears, and aspirations of the societies that created them. And even if they never lived, their legends live on, continuing to inspire, caution, and connect us to the cultures that dreamed them into being.
